Conventional transom-hung rudders are often used on small sailboats because of their simplicity compared to rudders mounted under the hull; however, they present substantial performance penalties, including (1) the rudder is more likely to ventilate by drawing air down from the free surface, (2) the effective aspect ratio, and therefore the lift-to-drag ratio, is not increased by the mirror-plane of the hull bottom and (3) there is additional spray and wavemaking resistance that arises as a result of the rudder passing through the free surface. This case study focuses on a means to mitigate the last of these penalties, the increased spray and wavemaking resistance. While many transom-hung rudders are essentially parallel, or tapered with the maximum chord at the top where it meets the tiller handle, the reader will recognize that having the largest cross section of rudder at the free surface will generate significant spray and wavemaking resistance, especially when the rudder is turned. This study investigated the use of minimizing the rudder chord length where it passes through the free surface, demonstrating the findings by full-scale towing tests of a series of rudders designed for a Fireball-class dinghy. Running the tests at full-scale, therefore matching Reynolds number and Froude number, eliminated questions on scaling. Experimentation on the effects of sweep angle, section shape and chord length at varying angles of attack and velocities showed a noticeable increase in lift-to-drag ratio of foils with reduced chord length at the free surface and by sweeping the rudder forward. To complete the case study, a velocity prediction program was used to estimate the change in speed around a notional race course.

The loss of a rudder is a dangerous situation for any vessel, and with the increasingly higher aspect ratios in current sailing yacht rudder designs, a better understanding of the forces on a rudder are required. While many failures have been caused by impacts with objects, a large number have failed due to underestimation of sailing loads. While larger aspect ratios increase the lift-to-drag ratio, they also increase the bending moment about the rudder’s root. Combined with thinner airfoil sections to reduce drag, modern rudders are highly stressed. Traditional design methods normally assume that the maximum lift coefficient is constant for all aspect ratios. This project combined computational fluid dynamics (CFD), finite element analysis (FEA) and the tank testing of a 1/5-scale yacht to determine suitable design lift coefficients for spade rudders of cruising and racing yachts. Two rudders of different aspect ratios were tested at various speeds, heel angles and wave conditions in the tank at the Naval Surface Warfare Center – Carderock Division. The rudders were equipped with strain gauges to determine the strains at various positions along the stock and blade. The strain profile was compared against FEA results that used a CFD prediction of the pressure profile. Through back-calculation the lift coefficients in stillwater and waves were derived. The results indicated that these lift coefficients are not constant.

Offshore-capable sail training craft (STC) specifically designed and built for the United States Naval Academy (USNA) have been a cornerstone of its seamanship training program since 1939. Currently the fourth generation of these craft is under development and this paper summarizes research projects performed by eight midshipmen in the areas of parametric design criteria, structures, appendage development and analytical tool evaluation. While the results are oriented toward the new sail training craft, they are general enough to apply to any medium-sized offshore sailing vessel.